foreign armies on a business basis. As late as the year 1300 the first
great jubilee of the Church was celebrated and brought hundreds of
thousands of pilgrims flocking to Rome.[16] The papacy, though sorely
pressed by many enemies, still proudly asserted its political
supremacy. But in truth it had lost its power, not only over the minds
of kings to hold them in subjection, not only over the interests of
nobles to stir them to revolt, but alas, even over the love of the
lower classes to rally them for its defence. Within ten years from the
great jubilee the papacy met complete defeat and subjugation at the
hands of a far lesser man and feebler monarch than Frederick II.

To the empire the long contest was as disastrous as to the papacy.
When Frederick II, at one time the most splendid monarch of Europe,
died in 1250, a crushed and defeated man, Germany sank into such
anarchy as it had not known since the days of the Hunnish invasion.
"When the Emperor was condemned by the Church," says an ancient
chronicle, "robbers made merry over their booty. Ploughshares were
beaten into swords, reaping hooks into lances. Men went everywhere
with flint and steel, setting in a blaze whatsoever they found." The
period from 1254 to 1273 is known as the "Great Interregnum" in German
history. There was no emperor, no authority, and every little lord
fought and robbed as he pleased. The cities, driven to desperation,
raised armed forces of their own and united in leagues, which later
developed into the great Hanseatic League, more powerful than
neighboring kings.[17] The anarchy spread to Italy. Bands of "Free
Companies" roamed from place to place, plundering, fighting battles,
storming walled cities, and at last the Pope sent thoroughly
frightened word to Germany that the lords must elect an emperor to
keep order or he would appoint one himself.