insurrections at this time, and the hangman was very busy. Now the
victory was with the patricians, and anon with the plebeians; and the
contest was continually renewed with changing fortune. After holding
aloof for some time the Hanseatic League finally took part in this
purely internal affair of the several cities, and always in favor of
the patrician party; in this way assuming a function originally
foreign to its purpose.

The movement was a perfectly natural and justifiable one. Though
originally subject to service and tribute on the part of bishop,
cloister, or prince, the condition of the tradesman changed with the
establishment of the principle that long unchallenged residence in a
city insured personal freedom to the individual--a privilege which in
those days of marked class discrimination was shared only by the
burgher and the monk. Among the two last-mentioned classes even the
low-born individual could rise by his own efforts: here neither
prejudice nor privilege interfered with the free exercise of native
talent. Many a poor apprentice in the bureau of Bergen eventually
became the progenitor of a long race of distinguished merchants; and
some of these families are flourishing in Europe to-day. It is but
natural that the handicraftsman, once released from his bonds, should
have desired to share these privileges, more particularly as the old
aristocratic _régime_ constantly became more assertive and
presumptuous. It is necessary also to consider that the former social
position of the artisan should not be measured by present standards;
for the difference in the educational status of the classes was not
nearly so pronounced then as now, and the workman, moreover, was
characterized by a spirit often as chivalrous as that of the
commercial magnate. There is a well-authenticated case of a shoemaker
challenging another member of his craft to a duel--which, by the way,