average duty, however, was but about 8.5 per cent. It was followed by
other acts, each increasing the rate of general duties, until, at the
outbreak of the War of 1812, the general rate was about 21 per cent. The
war added about 6 per cent, to this rate.

Growth toward democracy very commonly brings a curious bias toward
protection, contrasted with the fundamental free-trade argument that a
protective system and a system of slave labor have identical bases. The
bias toward a pronounced protective system in the United States makes
its appearance with the rise of democracy; and, after the War of 1812,
is complicated with party interests. New England was still the citadel
of Federalism. The war and its blockade had fostered manufactures in New
England; and the manufacturing interest, looking to the Democratic
party for protection, was a possible force to sap the foundations of the
citadel. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury, prepared,
and Calhoun carried through Congress, the tariff of 1816. It introduced
several protective features, the "minimum" feature, by which the
imported article was assumed to have cost at least a certain amount in
calculating duties, and positive protection for cottons and woollens.
The duties paid under this tariff were about 30 per cent. on all
imports, or 33 per cent. on dutiable goods. In 1824 and 1828, under the
lead of Clay, tariffs were adopted which made the tariff of duties still
higher and more systematically protective; they touched high-water
mark in 1830, being 40 per cent. on all imports, or 48.8 per cent. on
dutiable goods. The influence of nullification in forcing through the
compromise tariff of 1833, with its regular decrease of duties for ten
years, has been stated in the first volume.

Under the workings of the compromise tariff there was a steady decrease
in the rate on all imports, but not in the rate on dutiable goods, the