bench with the son of the noble, enjoyed the same education, and had an
equal opportunity of distinguishing himself. If he showed sufficient
promise, he was recommended to adopt the literary life; and the literary
life was the sure passport to State employment. State employment once
entered upon, merit secured advancement; and thus there was, in fact, no
obstacle to prevent the son of a labouring man from rising to the very
highest positions in the administration of the empire. Successful
ministers were usually rewarded by large grants of land from the royal
domain; and it follows that a clever youth of the labouring class might
by good conduct and ability make his way even into the ranks of the
landed aristocracy.

On the other hand, practically, the condition of the labouring class
was, generally speaking, a hard and sad one. The kings were entitled to
employ as many of their subjects as they pleased in forced labours, and
monarchs often sacrificed to their inordinate vanity the lives and
happiness of thousands. Private employers of labour were frequently
cruel and exacting; their overseers used the stick, and it was not easy
for those who suffered to obtain any redress. Moreover, taxation was
heavy, and inability to satisfy the collector subjected the defaulter to
the bastinado. Those who have studied the antiquities of Egypt with most
care, tell us that there was not much to choose between the condition of
the ancient labourers and that of the unhappy _fellahin_[6] of the
present day.



FOOTNOTES:

[4] Nefer-hotep, a deceased king.