On the stamps and coins of Turkey we miss the portrait of the reigning
sovereign, which we find on such issues of most monarchies. This is due
to a law of Mohammed, which forbids the reproduction of the human
figure. On the stamps we find the crescent, said to have been the emblem
of the Byzantine empire and adopted by the Turks after the fall of
Constantinople. We also find an elaborate device called the Toughra or
signature of the Sultan. It owes its origin to the Sultan Murad I, a
liberal sovereign and founder of many schools and institutions of
learning but unable to write his own name. He signed imperial decrees by
dipping his fingers in ink and placing them on the documents with three
fingers close together and the little finger and thumb extended. In
course of time this was adopted and, so to speak, consecrated as the
signature of the Sultan. It was also elaborated and arranged to form a
written phrase, while preserving, in a general way, its original form.
The toughra contains certain characters which are permanent and minor
ones which change. The latter are the names of the sovereign and his
father. Thus the toughra which we illustrate reads: "His Majesty Abdul
Hamid, son of Mejid, may he be always victorious." The small inscription
at the side reads "_el ghazi_," the victorious, one of the titles of the
Sultan. The toughra is often referred to as the hand. In an article
published in 1867 I find the following on this subject:

[Illustration: [Arabic: El Ghazi]]

"The hand has to Mussulmen three mystic significations; it denotes
providence; it is the expression of law; and thirdly, of power; it
restores the courage of the faithful and strikes terror to the hearts of
their enemies.

"As an emblem of law, the Mussulman thus explains the meaning of the