and Castilian arrogance and brutality ere long engendered such
bitterness that massacre after massacre of the Chinese occurred,
that of 1603 almost exterminating the Chinese population of
Manila.

The growing demand for coffee, which Europeans had first
received in 1580 from Arabia, brought Dutch ships into Asiatic
waters in 1598. After hostile experiences with the Portuguese
at Macao, they seized the Pescadores Islands in 1622. But the
opposition of the Chinese led the Dutch to withdraw to Formosa,
where their stormy relations with natives, Chinese from
the mainland and Japanese finally resulted in their expulsion in
1662. Since then the Dutch have contented themselves with a
few trading factories chiefly at Canton and with their possessions
in Malaysia, so that they have been less aggressive in China
than several other European nations.

A more formidable power appeared on the scene in 1635,
when four ships[36] of the English East India Company sailed up
the Pearl River. The temper of the newcomers was quickly
shown when the Chinese, incited by the jealous Portuguese,
sought to prevent their lodgment, for the English, so the record
quaintly runs, ``did on a sudden display their bloody ensigns,
and . . . each ship began to play furiously upon the forts
with their broadsides . . . put on board all their ordnance,
fired the council-house, and demolished all they could.''
Then they sailed on to Canton, and when their peremptory demand
for trading privileges was met with evasion and excuses,
they ``pillaged and burned many vessels and villages . . .
spreading destruction with fire and sword.'' Describing this