Europe were restive under the rule of kings, and gradually governments
controlled in greater or less degree by the people were established.
Almost every decade saw popular uprisings in some of the European
states. About 1820 insurrections occurred in Greece, in Spain, and in
southern Italy; and the Spanish American colonies revolted from the
mother country. In 1830 popular uprisings took place in France, Belgium,
Germany, Poland, and other places. In 1848 a far more serious movement
occurred, which overthrew the French monarchy and established a
republic. From France the flame of liberty lighted fires of insurrection
in Germany, Austria, Poland, and Italy. Similar attempts were made at
later times. As a result of these popular uprisings and of the growing
education of all classes of the people, manhood suffrage and
representative institutions were established in most of the European
states.

NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS.--The Holy Allies had refused to recognize the
right of nations to independent existence. They had bartered peoples and
provinces "as if they were chattels and pawns in a game." But when the
peoples tried to found democratic governments, they often discovered
that the quickest and surest way was to unite under one government all
who belonged to a given nationality. Thus the last hundred years in
Europe has witnessed the erection of a number of new national states
created by throwing off the yoke of some foreign ruler. Among the new
nations thus established were (1) Belgium, freed from the kingdom of
Holland; (2) Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Albania, freed from
Turkish rule; (3) Italy, united out of territories controlled by petty
sovereigns and Austrian rulers; (4) Norway, separated from Sweden. The
same period saw also the unification of a number of German states into
the German Empire. But during this time several races were unsuccessful
in obtaining independence, among which we may note the Poles (in Russia,