[Footnote D: The lead of the shield is the angular divergence of its
axis from the axis of the tunnel and, in this tunnel, was measured as
the offset in 23 ft. It was called + when the shield was pointed upward
from grade, and - when pointed downward.]


GUIDING THE SHIELDS.

Little difficulty was experienced at any time in driving the shield
close to the desired line, but it was much harder to keep it on grade.
In rock section, where the cradle could be set far enough in advance to
become hard before the shield was shoved over it, there was no trouble
whatever. Where the cradle could be placed only a very short time before
it had to take the weight of the shield, the case was quite different.
The shield had a tendency to settle at the cutting edge, and when once
pointed downward it was extremely difficult to change its direction. It
was generally accomplished by embedding railroad rails or heavy oak
plank in the cradle on solid foundation. This often had to be repeated
several times before it was successful. In soft ground it was much
easier to change the direction of the shield, but, owing to the varying
nature of the material, it was sometimes impossible to determine in
advance how the shield should be pointed. It was found by experience at
Manhattan that the iron lining remained in the best position in relation
to grade when the underside of the bottom of the shield at the rear end
was driven on grade of the bottom of the iron, but if the rate of
progress was slow, it was better to drive the shield a little higher.

In the headings from Long Island, which, as a rule, were in soft ground,
the cutting edges of the shields were kept from 4 to 8 in. higher, with
respect to the grade line, than the rails. The shields would then