the nature of an honorable function or office. When the idea of
payment and barter was introduced among us, and valuable presents
or fees began to be demanded for treating the sick, the ensuing
greed and rivalry led to many demoralizing practices, and in time
to the rise of the modern "conjurer," who is generally a fraud and
trickster of the grossest kind. It is fortunate that his day is
practically over.

Ever seeking to establish spiritual comradeship with the
animal creation, the Indian adopted this or that animal as
his "totem," the emblematic device of his society, family, or clan.
It is probable that the creature chosen was the traditional
ancestress, as we are told that the First Man had many wives among
the animal people. The sacred beast, bird, or reptile, represented
by its stuffed skin, or by a rude painting, was treated with
reverence and carried into battle to insure the guardianship of the
spirits. The symbolic attribute of beaver, bear, or tortoise, such
as wisdom, cunning, courage, and the like, was supposed to be
mysteriously conferred upon the wearer of the badge. The totem or
charm used in medicine was ordinarily that of the medicine
lodge to which the practitioner belonged, though there were some
great men who boasted a special revelation.

There are two ceremonial usages which, so far as I have been
able to ascertain, were universal among American Indians, and
apparently fundamental. These have already been referred to as the
"eneepee," or vapor-bath, and the "chan-du-hu-pah-yu-za-pee," or
ceremonial of the pipe. In our Siouan legends and traditions these
two are preeminent, as handed down from the most ancient time and
persisting to the last.