deserve it. Thus we speak of a silver or golden box; ["The original
word is 'pyx,' which means a box made of box-wood."] thus we call a
man illiterate, although he may not be utterly ignorant, but only
not acquainted with the higher branches of literature; thus, seeing
a badly-dressed ragged man we say that we have seen a naked man.
These things of which we spoke are not benefits, but they possess
the appearance of benefits. "Then, just as they are quasi-benefits,
so your man is quasi-ungrateful, not really ungrateful." This is
untrue, because both he who gives and he who receives them speaks
of them as benefits; so he who fails to return the semblance of a
real benefit is as much an ungrateful man as he who mixes a
sleeping draught, believing it to be poison, is a poisoner.

XIV. Cleanthes speaks more impetuously than this. "Granted," says
he, "that what he received was not a benefit, yet he is ungrateful,
because he would not have returned a benefit if he had received
one." So he who carries deadly weapons and has intentions of
robbing and murdering, is a brigand even before he has dipped his
hands in blood; his wickedness consists and is shown in action, but
does not begin thereby. Men are punished for sacrilege, although no
one's hands can reach to the gods. "How," asks our opponent, "can
any one be ungrateful to a bad man, since a bad man cannot bestow a
benefit?" In the same way, I answer, because that which he received
was not a benefit, but was called one; if any one receives from a
bad man any of those things which are valued by the ignorant, and
of which bad men often possess great store, it becomes his duty to
make a return in the same kind, and to give back as though they
were truly good those things which he received as though they were
truly good. A man is said to be in debt, whether he owes gold
pieces or leather marked with a state stamp, such as the