educated criminal escaped hanging for offences for which his illiterate
neighbor had to swing. [Footnote: _Ibid.,_ Sec. 11.]

Nor is there any clear concensus of opinion touching the question of who
shall be selected as the bearer of punishment. If a man has injured
another unintentionally, shall he be held to make amends? It has seemed
just to men that he should. [Footnote: WESTERMARCK, chapter ix.] That one
man should be made responsible for the misdeeds of another, under the
principle of collective responsibility, has commended itself as just to a
multitude of minds. Not merely the sins of the fathers, but those of the
most distant relations, those of neighbors, of fellow-tribesmen, of
fellow-citizens, have been visited upon those whose sole guilt lay in
such a connection with the directly guilty parties. This is not a
sporadic phenomenon. Among the ancient Hebrews, in Babylonia, in Greece,
in the later legislation of Rome, in medieval and even in modern Europe,
the principle of collective responsibility has been accepted and has
seemed acceptable. Asia, Africa and Oceania have cast votes for it. So
have the Americas. [Footnote: WESTERMARCK, I, chapter ii; DEWEY AND
TUFTS, _Ethics_, New York, 1919, Part I, chapter ii.]

5. THE CODES OF COMMUNITES: VERACITY.--As to veracity: It has undoubtedly
been valued to some degree, and with certain limitations, by tribes and
nations the most diverse in their degrees of culture. Did men never speak
the truth they might well never speak at all. But to maintain that
absolute veracity has at all times been greatly valued would be an
exaggeration. The lie of courtesy, the clever lie, the lie to the
stranger, have been and still are, in many communities both uncivilized
and more advanced, not merely condoned, but approved. With the defence
which has been made of the doctrines of mental reservation and pious
fraud students of church history are familiar. In diplomacy and in war