often of a remarkable and highly unexpected boldness. Aptly John de Meung
has been compared with Rabelais, and it is not astonishing that the
popularity of this poem should have lasted more than two centuries nor
that it should have charmed or irritated our ancestors according to the
tendency of their minds.

FROISSART.--The representative of history in the fourteenth century was
Froissart, a picturesque chronicler, very vital, always full of interest,
although it is indisputable that he was lacking in historical criticism;
and among the orators, polemists, and controversialists of the times must
at least be cited the impassioned and virtuous Gerson, who expended his
life in incessant struggles on behalf of his Christian faith.

To him, without decisive proof, has often been attributed the
_Imitation of Jesus Christ_, which, in any case, whoever wrote it,
must be emphasised as one of the purest products of the religious spirit
of the Middle Ages.

CHARLES OF ORLEANS; VILLON.--The fifteenth century, otherwise somewhat
sterile, introduced one distinguished poet, Charles of Orleans, graceful
and pleasing; and one who at moments rose to the height of being almost
a great poet: this was Francis Villon, the celebrated author of _The
Ballade of Dames of Ancient Times_, of which the yet more famous
refrain was, "Where are the snows of last year?"

MYSTERIES AND MIRACLES.--To deal with the theatre of the Middle Ages it
is necessary to go further back. Without considering as drama those pious
performances which the clergy organised or tolerated even in the churches
from the tenth century and probably earlier, there was already a popular
drama in the twelfth century outside the church whereat were performed