due on the French and Spanish loans were years behind. Madison attacked
this problem before Washington arrived in New York to take the oath of
office. On April 8 he introduced in the House a resolution which aimed
only at giving immediate effect to a scheme of duties and imposts that had
been approved generally by the States in 1783. On the very next day debate
upon this resolution began in the committee of the whole, for there was
then no system of standing committees to intervene between the House and
its business. The debate soon broadened out far beyond the lines of the
original scheme, and in it the student finds lucidly presented the issues
of public policy that have accompanied tariff debates ever since.

Madison laid down the general principle that "commerce ought to be free,
and labor and industry left at large to find its proper object," but
suggested that it would be unwise to apply this principle without regard
to particular circumstances. "Although interest will, in general, operate
effectually to produce political good, yet there are causes in which
certain factitious circumstances may divert it from its natural channel,
or throw or retain it in an artificial one." In language which now
reads like prophecy he referred to cases "where cities, companies, or
opulent individuals engross the business from others, by having had an
uninterrupted possession of it, or by the extent of their capitals being
able to destroy a competition." The same situation could occur between
nations, and had to be considered. There was some truth, he also thought,
in the opinion "that each nation should have within itself the means of
defense, independent of foreign supplies," but he considered that this
argument had been urged beyond reason, as "there is good reason to believe
that, when it becomes necessary, we may obtain supplies abroad as readily
as any other nation whatsoever." He instanced as a cogent reason in favor
of protective duties that, as the States had formerly the power of making
regulations of trade to cherish their domestic interests, it must be