in which the articles imported were produced, or from the ordinary ports
of sale or exportation. All officers and three-fourths of the crew were
required to be natives of the country of which the foreign vessel bore
the flag, under penalty of confiscation of vessel and cargo, and a fine
enforcible under pain of imprisonment. A tonnage tax was levied on
foreign ships alone.

Despite this elaborate code designed for its benefit the domestic
mercantile marine almost entirely disappeared during the wars of the
Republic and the Empire; and after the Restoration its revival was so
slow that for some time foreign ships were absolutely necessary for the
supply of the French market.[BH] Still the underlying principles of the
code were retained by the Restoration Government, modified in a few
particulars. The modifications included the removal of the prohibition
on indirect commerce--- the carrying trade between France and other
countries:--yet advantage even in this commerce was held for the French
flag through "flag surtaxes," added to the ordinary customs duties
levied upon the merchandise imported into France in foreign bottoms,
and by the tonnage charges.[BI] A law of March, 1822, renewed the
prohibition against the importation of foreign-built ships.[BI]

Early under Napoleon III movements toward the adoption of an economic
policy similar to that then established in England were begun, and
shortly a succession of radical changes in the maritime code were
instituted.[BJ] In 1860 a commercial treaty with England was entered
into. In 1861 freedom of access of foreign shipping to the French West
Indies was permitted, subject to the payment of special duties varying
according to the ports whence the goods were brought, or to which they
were imported. Then at length, in 1866, numerous restrictions of the old
code were swept away.[BJ] This law of 1866 (May) admitted duty-free all