against the commerce of Holland and England, with the ultimate object of
upbuilding the home merchant marine and the laying of a broad basis for
a national navy.[BF] These acts included decrees giving French ships the
monopoly of trade to and from the colonies of France; imposing tonnage
duties on foreign shipping; awarding direct premiums on French-built
ships. England retaliated immediately. Holland remonstrated first, then
made reprisals. For a time under Colbert's energetic administration of
the finances and the marine, "prosperity grew apace. At the end of
twelve years everything was flourishing."[BG] Then came the six years'
war (1672-1678) with France and England combined against Holland, and at
its end the French merchant marine lay sorely crippled.[BG]

Still the fundamental principles of the stringent navigation laws long
remained. A decree in 1681, and subsequent ordinances, defined what
should constitute a French vessel; and corporal punishment was ordained
against a captain for a second offence in navigating a vessel of alien
ownership under the French flag.[BH] By later decrees, no alien was
permitted to command a French vessel. An ordinance of 1727 further
restricted alien command by shutting out even French subjects who had
married aliens.[BH] It was required that every French vessel should be
manned by a crew two-thirds of whom were French subjects.[BH] The system
of regulations restricting the trade of the French colonies to French
ships, and to the home market held till well into the nineteenth
century.

During the Revolution a decree (May, 1791) prohibited acquisition of all
vessels of foreign build. In 1793 (Sept.) it was ordained that no
foreign commodities, productions, or merchandise should be imported into
France, or into any of her colonies or possessions, except directly in
French ships, or in ships belonging to the inhabitants of the countries