often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has
been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves.

These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or
open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa,"
or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two
or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of
various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and
with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could
beat them.

The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the
river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new
sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is
the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very
expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the
ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth. Frequently,
however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible
to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long
sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at
either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels,
calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these
precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick
fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by
a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused
by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream.
Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal,
cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for
distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return
voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of