Empires were especially close. Furthermore the Hohenstaufen emperor,
Frederick II, it will be remembered, was a friend and patron of the
Saracens in Italy and Sicily, who in turn supported him loyally in his
struggle against the papacy. Above all, the crusades, which brought the
civilization of the West face to face with that of the East, were a
powerful factor in bringing Oriental influence into Europe. The effect
they had on the European mind is shown by the great number of French and
German poems which lay their scene of action in Eastern lands, or, as
will be shown presently, introduce persons and things from India and
Persia.[7]

Of course it is as a rule impossible to tell precisely how and when the
Oriental influence came into Europe, but that it did come is absolutely
certain. The transformation of the Buddha-legend into the Christian
legend of Barlaam and Josaphat, the migration of fables and stories, and
the introduction of the game of chess furnish the clearest proofs of
this.

* * * * *

But direct information about the East was also available. A number of
merchants and missionaries penetrated even as far as China, and have
left accounts of their travels. Such an account of India and Ceylon was
given as early as the sixth century by Cosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes.
The names of Benjamin of Tudela (about 1160 A.D.) and of Marco Polo
(1271-1295) are familiar to every student of historical geography. The
Mongol rulers during the period of their dominion over China were in
active communication with the popes and allowed Western missionaries
free access to their realm. A number of these missionaries also came to
India or Persia, for instance Giovanni de Montecorvino (1289-1293),[8]